"The skepticism towards vaccines dates back to their inception": Science historian Thomas Levenson discusses the historical aspect of germ theory and its skeptics
Fresh Take:
Get ready to dive into the sordid history of germ theory and our ongoing struggle against the microscopic monsters that plague us! In his new book, Thomas Levenson, a renowned science writer at MIT, delves into the fascinating story of germ theory and tackles the intriguing question of why some ideas take hold while others fall by the wayside. Titled So Very Small: How Humans Discovered the Microcosmos, Defeated Germs - and May Still Lose the War Against Infectious Disease (Random House, 2025), this riveting read takes readers on a journey through the past and all the way to the present day, as humanity grapples with the never-ending war against germs.
In an exclusive interview with our website, Levenson discusses the origins of germ theory, its stubborn skeptics, and how its fundamental principles are still under attack today. Here's what he had to say:
Nicoletta Lanese: When you examine the history of how germ theory came about, were there competing ideas about disease that were particularly hard to dispel?
Thomas Levenson: It took around 200 years from the discovery of microbes to the first definitive demonstration that microbes trigger infectious disease, which was achieved by Robert Koch's anthrax experiments. I asked myself, "Why the delay?"
One of the challenges facing germ theory was that the prevailing ideas weren't all that bad. They provided a reasonable explanation for events and even provided a framework for doing things that were beneficial, such as improving hygiene. By the 19th century, abandoning the divine judgment angle, it was generally accepted that conditions played a role in the spread of illness.
However, this belief also created barriers to accepting germ theory as the underlying cause. Some argued it was the poor who were responsible for their own misery, while others believed that God imposed diseases through corruption or decay. Neither side acknowledged the actual causative agent.
NL: It sounds like people understood the broader conditions that facilitated germs but not that germs were the root cause.
TL: Absolutely. Much like today, understanding psychology and social constructs played a significant role. People often view things through the lens of hierarchy and perceived place. In the case of illness, those who lived in unsanitary conditions were seen as deserving of their fate. Critics would argue either that the poor were responsible for their living conditions or that it was their nature to live in squalor.
Both viewpoints agreed on the underlying causation: bad living conditions lead to illness. Of course, they were missing the mark when it came to understanding the true cause of disease.
NL: I'd like to discuss handwashing - how was it initially met with resistance?
TL: The groundbreaking experiment on the effectiveness of handwashing to prevent infectious disease was conducted by Ignác Semmelweis in Vienna. After observing starkly different mortality rates in two birthing wards managed by midwives and doctors, he uncovered a bacterial infection, known as puerperal fever, that was being spread through biological fluids from the doctors and medical students who had gone directly from autopsies to the birthing wards.
His solution was to require their hands be cleaned with chlorine solution, but his proposals were met with resistance. Part of it was due to Semmelweis' poor communication skills and the fact that his findings threatened the medical establishment, damaging the reputation of doctors who had been responsible for mainstream birthing practices.
NL: Was there a turning point that eventually changed people's views on handwashing?
TL: A key turning point came in the aftermath of the American Civil War, when the issue of hospital cleanliness gained traction. Joseph Lister's work on sterile surgery significantly advanced the use of antiseptics, reducing the rate of post-surgical infections and ultimately becoming the standard for modern medicine.
The use of antiseptics initially met resistance, before becoming accepted practice in the 1870s. Today, handwashing is an essential part of combating various infections.
Stay tuned for more fascinating insights from Thomas Levenson and his new book, So Very Small: How Humans Discovered the Microcosmos, Defeated Germs - and May Still Lose the War Against Infectious Disease. Don't forget to sign up for our daily newsletter to receive the latest scientific discoveries straight to your inbox!
Additional Resources:
- Antibiotic Resistance: A Growing Threat - With antibiotic resistance on the rise, it's crucial to understand how we can prevent antibiotics from becoming obsolete.
- Superbugs: A Growing Threat and How to Protect Against Them - Superbugs are posing an increasing danger, and it's essential to take steps to protect ourselves from them.
- The History of Handwashing: From Puerperal Fever to Modern Hygiene Practices - Delve deeper into the history of handwashing and discover how it transformed public health.
In the context of history, competing ideas about medical-conditions, such as the belief that disease was a result of bad living conditions or divine judgment, often delayed acceptance of germ theory as the underlying cause. Today, even with advancements in hand-washing practices, there is a growing threat posed by antibiotic resistance and superbugs, necessitating continued vigilance for health and wellness.
